| author | Shabe Razvi <shaber@symbian.org> |
| Wed, 21 Oct 2009 13:56:56 +0100 | |
| changeset 17 | c506b18dc03f |
| parent 1 | 2fb8b9db1c86 |
| permissions | -rw-r--r-- |
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<HTML> |
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<HEAD> |
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<TITLE>Metaclasses in Python 1.5</TITLE> |
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</HEAD> |
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<BODY BGCOLOR="FFFFFF"> |
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<H1>Metaclasses in Python 1.5</H1> |
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<H2>(A.k.a. The Killer Joke :-)</H2> |
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<HR> |
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(<i>Postscript:</i> reading this essay is probably not the best way to |
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understand the metaclass hook described here. See a <A |
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HREF="meta-vladimir.txt">message posted by Vladimir Marangozov</A> |
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which may give a gentler introduction to the matter. You may also |
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want to search Deja News for messages with "metaclass" in the subject |
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posted to comp.lang.python in July and August 1998.) |
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<HR> |
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<P>In previous Python releases (and still in 1.5), there is something |
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called the ``Don Beaudry hook'', after its inventor and champion. |
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This allows C extensions to provide alternate class behavior, thereby |
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allowing the Python class syntax to be used to define other class-like |
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entities. Don Beaudry has used this in his infamous <A |
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HREF="http://maigret.cog.brown.edu/pyutil/">MESS</A> package; Jim |
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Fulton has used it in his <A |
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HREF="http://www.digicool.com/releases/ExtensionClass/">Extension |
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Classes</A> package. (It has also been referred to as the ``Don |
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Beaudry <i>hack</i>,'' but that's a misnomer. There's nothing hackish |
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about it -- in fact, it is rather elegant and deep, even though |
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there's something dark to it.) |
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<P>(On first reading, you may want to skip directly to the examples in |
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the section "Writing Metaclasses in Python" below, unless you want |
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your head to explode.) |
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<P> |
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<HR> |
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<P>Documentation of the Don Beaudry hook has purposefully been kept |
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minimal, since it is a feature of incredible power, and is easily |
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abused. Basically, it checks whether the <b>type of the base |
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class</b> is callable, and if so, it is called to create the new |
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class. |
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<P>Note the two indirection levels. Take a simple example: |
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<PRE> |
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class B: |
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pass |
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class C(B): |
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pass |
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</PRE> |
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Take a look at the second class definition, and try to fathom ``the |
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type of the base class is callable.'' |
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<P>(Types are not classes, by the way. See questions 4.2, 4.19 and in |
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particular 6.22 in the <A |
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HREF="http://www.python.org/cgi-bin/faqw.py" >Python FAQ</A> |
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for more on this topic.) |
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<P> |
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<UL> |
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<LI>The <b>base class</b> is B; this one's easy.<P> |
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<LI>Since B is a class, its type is ``class''; so the <b>type of the |
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base class</b> is the type ``class''. This is also known as |
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types.ClassType, assuming the standard module <code>types</code> has |
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been imported.<P> |
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<LI>Now is the type ``class'' <b>callable</b>? No, because types (in |
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core Python) are never callable. Classes are callable (calling a |
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class creates a new instance) but types aren't.<P> |
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</UL> |
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<P>So our conclusion is that in our example, the type of the base |
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class (of C) is not callable. So the Don Beaudry hook does not apply, |
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and the default class creation mechanism is used (which is also used |
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when there is no base class). In fact, the Don Beaudry hook never |
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applies when using only core Python, since the type of a core object |
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is never callable. |
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<P>So what do Don and Jim do in order to use Don's hook? Write an |
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extension that defines at least two new Python object types. The |
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first would be the type for ``class-like'' objects usable as a base |
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class, to trigger Don's hook. This type must be made callable. |
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That's why we need a second type. Whether an object is callable |
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depends on its type. So whether a type object is callable depends on |
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<i>its</i> type, which is a <i>meta-type</i>. (In core Python there |
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is only one meta-type, the type ``type'' (types.TypeType), which is |
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the type of all type objects, even itself.) A new meta-type must |
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be defined that makes the type of the class-like objects callable. |
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(Normally, a third type would also be needed, the new ``instance'' |
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103 |
type, but this is not an absolute requirement -- the new class type |
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could return an object of some existing type when invoked to create an |
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105 |
instance.) |
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106 |
|
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107 |
<P>Still confused? Here's a simple device due to Don himself to |
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108 |
explain metaclasses. Take a simple class definition; assume B is a |
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109 |
special class that triggers Don's hook: |
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110 |
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111 |
<PRE> |
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112 |
class C(B): |
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a = 1 |
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b = 2 |
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115 |
</PRE> |
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116 |
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117 |
This can be though of as equivalent to: |
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118 |
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119 |
<PRE> |
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120 |
C = type(B)('C', (B,), {'a': 1, 'b': 2})
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121 |
</PRE> |
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122 |
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123 |
If that's too dense for you, here's the same thing written out using |
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124 |
temporary variables: |
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125 |
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126 |
<PRE> |
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127 |
creator = type(B) # The type of the base class |
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name = 'C' # The name of the new class |
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bases = (B,) # A tuple containing the base class(es) |
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130 |
namespace = {'a': 1, 'b': 2} # The namespace of the class statement
|
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C = creator(name, bases, namespace) |
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132 |
</PRE> |
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133 |
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134 |
This is analogous to what happens without the Don Beaudry hook, except |
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135 |
that in that case the creator function is set to the default class |
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136 |
creator. |
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137 |
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138 |
<P>In either case, the creator is called with three arguments. The |
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139 |
first one, <i>name</i>, is the name of the new class (as given at the |
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140 |
top of the class statement). The <i>bases</i> argument is a tuple of |
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141 |
base classes (a singleton tuple if there's only one base class, like |
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142 |
the example). Finally, <i>namespace</i> is a dictionary containing |
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the local variables collected during execution of the class statement. |
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144 |
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145 |
<P>Note that the contents of the namespace dictionary is simply |
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146 |
whatever names were defined in the class statement. A little-known |
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fact is that when Python executes a class statement, it enters a new |
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148 |
local namespace, and all assignments and function definitions take |
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149 |
place in this namespace. Thus, after executing the following class |
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150 |
statement: |
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151 |
|
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152 |
<PRE> |
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153 |
class C: |
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a = 1 |
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155 |
def f(s): pass |
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156 |
</PRE> |
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157 |
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158 |
the class namespace's contents would be {'a': 1, 'f': <function f
|
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159 |
...>}. |
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160 |
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161 |
<P>But enough already about writing Python metaclasses in C; read the |
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162 |
documentation of <A |
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163 |
HREF="http://maigret.cog.brown.edu/pyutil/">MESS</A> or <A |
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HREF="http://www.digicool.com/papers/ExtensionClass.html" >Extension |
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Classes</A> for more information. |
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166 |
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167 |
<P> |
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168 |
|
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169 |
<HR> |
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170 |
|
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171 |
<H2>Writing Metaclasses in Python</H2> |
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172 |
|
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173 |
<P>In Python 1.5, the requirement to write a C extension in order to |
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174 |
write metaclasses has been dropped (though you can still do |
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175 |
it, of course). In addition to the check ``is the type of the base |
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176 |
class callable,'' there's a check ``does the base class have a |
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177 |
__class__ attribute.'' If so, it is assumed that the __class__ |
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attribute refers to a class. |
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179 |
|
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180 |
<P>Let's repeat our simple example from above: |
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181 |
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182 |
<PRE> |
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183 |
class C(B): |
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184 |
a = 1 |
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b = 2 |
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186 |
</PRE> |
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187 |
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188 |
Assuming B has a __class__ attribute, this translates into: |
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189 |
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190 |
<PRE> |
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191 |
C = B.__class__('C', (B,), {'a': 1, 'b': 2})
|
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192 |
</PRE> |
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193 |
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194 |
This is exactly the same as before except that instead of type(B), |
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195 |
B.__class__ is invoked. If you have read <A HREF= |
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"http://www.python.org/cgi-bin/faqw.py?req=show&file=faq06.022.htp" |
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>FAQ question 6.22</A> you will understand that while there is a big |
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technical difference between type(B) and B.__class__, they play the |
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199 |
same role at different abstraction levels. And perhaps at some point |
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200 |
in the future they will really be the same thing (at which point you |
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201 |
would be able to derive subclasses from built-in types). |
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202 |
|
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<P>At this point it may be worth mentioning that C.__class__ is the |
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same object as B.__class__, i.e., C's metaclass is the same as B's |
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205 |
metaclass. In other words, subclassing an existing class creates a |
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new (meta)inststance of the base class's metaclass. |
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207 |
|
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<P>Going back to the example, the class B.__class__ is instantiated, |
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passing its constructor the same three arguments that are passed to |
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the default class constructor or to an extension's metaclass: |
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<i>name</i>, <i>bases</i>, and <i>namespace</i>. |
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212 |
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<P>It is easy to be confused by what exactly happens when using a |
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metaclass, because we lose the absolute distinction between classes |
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and instances: a class is an instance of a metaclass (a |
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``metainstance''), but technically (i.e. in the eyes of the python |
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runtime system), the metaclass is just a class, and the metainstance |
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is just an instance. At the end of the class statement, the metaclass |
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whose metainstance is used as a base class is instantiated, yielding a |
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second metainstance (of the same metaclass). This metainstance is |
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then used as a (normal, non-meta) class; instantiation of the class |
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means calling the metainstance, and this will return a real instance. |
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And what class is that an instance of? Conceptually, it is of course |
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an instance of our metainstance; but in most cases the Python runtime |
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system will see it as an instance of a a helper class used by the |
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metaclass to implement its (non-meta) instances... |
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227 |
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<P>Hopefully an example will make things clearer. Let's presume we |
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have a metaclass MetaClass1. It's helper class (for non-meta |
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instances) is callled HelperClass1. We now (manually) instantiate |
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MetaClass1 once to get an empty special base class: |
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232 |
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<PRE> |
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BaseClass1 = MetaClass1("BaseClass1", (), {})
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</PRE> |
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236 |
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We can now use BaseClass1 as a base class in a class statement: |
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238 |
|
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<PRE> |
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class MySpecialClass(BaseClass1): |
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i = 1 |
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def f(s): pass |
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</PRE> |
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244 |
|
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At this point, MySpecialClass is defined; it is a metainstance of |
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MetaClass1 just like BaseClass1, and in fact the expression |
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``BaseClass1.__class__ == MySpecialClass.__class__ == MetaClass1'' |
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yields true. |
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249 |
|
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<P>We are now ready to create instances of MySpecialClass. Let's |
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assume that no constructor arguments are required: |
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252 |
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<PRE> |
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254 |
x = MySpecialClass() |
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y = MySpecialClass() |
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print x.__class__, y.__class__ |
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257 |
</PRE> |
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258 |
|
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The print statement shows that x and y are instances of HelperClass1. |
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How did this happen? MySpecialClass is an instance of MetaClass1 |
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|
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(``meta'' is irrelevant here); when an instance is called, its |
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__call__ method is invoked, and presumably the __call__ method defined |
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|
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by MetaClass1 returns an instance of HelperClass1. |
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264 |
|
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|
265 |
<P>Now let's see how we could use metaclasses -- what can we do |
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|
266 |
with metaclasses that we can't easily do without them? Here's one |
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267 |
idea: a metaclass could automatically insert trace calls for all |
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|
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method calls. Let's first develop a simplified example, without |
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|
269 |
support for inheritance or other ``advanced'' Python features (we'll |
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add those later). |
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271 |
|
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272 |
<PRE> |
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273 |
import types |
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274 |
|
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|
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class Tracing: |
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276 |
def __init__(self, name, bases, namespace): |
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"""Create a new class.""" |
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self.__name__ = name |
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self.__bases__ = bases |
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self.__namespace__ = namespace |
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|
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def __call__(self): |
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"""Create a new instance.""" |
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return Instance(self) |
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284 |
|
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class Instance: |
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286 |
def __init__(self, klass): |
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|
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self.__klass__ = klass |
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|
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def __getattr__(self, name): |
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|
289 |
try: |
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value = self.__klass__.__namespace__[name] |
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|
291 |
except KeyError: |
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|
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raise AttributeError, name |
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if type(value) is not types.FunctionType: |
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return value |
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return BoundMethod(value, self) |
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296 |
|
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class BoundMethod: |
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def __init__(self, function, instance): |
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|
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self.function = function |
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self.instance = instance |
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def __call__(self, *args): |
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print "calling", self.function, "for", self.instance, "with", args |
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return apply(self.function, (self.instance,) + args) |
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304 |
|
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|
305 |
Trace = Tracing('Trace', (), {})
|
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306 |
|
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|
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class MyTracedClass(Trace): |
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def method1(self, a): |
|
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Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
309 |
self.a = a |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
310 |
def method2(self): |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
311 |
return self.a |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
312 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
313 |
aninstance = MyTracedClass() |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
314 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
315 |
aninstance.method1(10) |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
316 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
317 |
print "the answer is %d" % aninstance.method2() |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
318 |
</PRE> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
319 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
320 |
Confused already? The intention is to read this from top down. The |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
321 |
Tracing class is the metaclass we're defining. Its structure is |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
322 |
really simple. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
323 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
324 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
325 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
326 |
<UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
327 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
328 |
<LI>The __init__ method is invoked when a new Tracing instance is |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
329 |
created, e.g. the definition of class MyTracedClass later in the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
330 |
example. It simply saves the class name, base classes and namespace |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
331 |
as instance variables.<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
332 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
333 |
<LI>The __call__ method is invoked when a Tracing instance is called, |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
334 |
e.g. the creation of aninstance later in the example. It returns an |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
335 |
instance of the class Instance, which is defined next.<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
336 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
337 |
</UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
338 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
339 |
<P>The class Instance is the class used for all instances of classes |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
340 |
built using the Tracing metaclass, e.g. aninstance. It has two |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
341 |
methods: |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
342 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
343 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
344 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
345 |
<UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
346 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
347 |
<LI>The __init__ method is invoked from the Tracing.__call__ method |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
348 |
above to initialize a new instance. It saves the class reference as |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
349 |
an instance variable. It uses a funny name because the user's |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
350 |
instance variables (e.g. self.a later in the example) live in the same |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
351 |
namespace.<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
352 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
353 |
<LI>The __getattr__ method is invoked whenever the user code |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
354 |
references an attribute of the instance that is not an instance |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
355 |
variable (nor a class variable; but except for __init__ and |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
356 |
__getattr__ there are no class variables). It will be called, for |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
357 |
example, when aninstance.method1 is referenced in the example, with |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
358 |
self set to aninstance and name set to the string "method1".<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
359 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
360 |
</UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
361 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
362 |
<P>The __getattr__ method looks the name up in the __namespace__ |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
363 |
dictionary. If it isn't found, it raises an AttributeError exception. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
364 |
(In a more realistic example, it would first have to look through the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
365 |
base classes as well.) If it is found, there are two possibilities: |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
366 |
it's either a function or it isn't. If it's not a function, it is |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
367 |
assumed to be a class variable, and its value is returned. If it's a |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
368 |
function, we have to ``wrap'' it in instance of yet another helper |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
369 |
class, BoundMethod. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
370 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
371 |
<P>The BoundMethod class is needed to implement a familiar feature: |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
372 |
when a method is defined, it has an initial argument, self, which is |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
373 |
automatically bound to the relevant instance when it is called. For |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
374 |
example, aninstance.method1(10) is equivalent to method1(aninstance, |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
375 |
10). In the example if this call, first a temporary BoundMethod |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
376 |
instance is created with the following constructor call: temp = |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
377 |
BoundMethod(method1, aninstance); then this instance is called as |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
378 |
temp(10). After the call, the temporary instance is discarded. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
379 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
380 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
381 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
382 |
<UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
383 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
384 |
<LI>The __init__ method is invoked for the constructor call |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
385 |
BoundMethod(method1, aninstance). It simply saves away its |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
386 |
arguments.<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
387 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
388 |
<LI>The __call__ method is invoked when the bound method instance is |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
389 |
called, as in temp(10). It needs to call method1(aninstance, 10). |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
390 |
However, even though self.function is now method1 and self.instance is |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
391 |
aninstance, it can't call self.function(self.instance, args) directly, |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
392 |
because it should work regardless of the number of arguments passed. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
393 |
(For simplicity, support for keyword arguments has been omitted.)<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
394 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
395 |
</UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
396 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
397 |
<P>In order to be able to support arbitrary argument lists, the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
398 |
__call__ method first constructs a new argument tuple. Conveniently, |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
399 |
because of the notation *args in __call__'s own argument list, the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
400 |
arguments to __call__ (except for self) are placed in the tuple args. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
401 |
To construct the desired argument list, we concatenate a singleton |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
402 |
tuple containing the instance with the args tuple: (self.instance,) + |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
403 |
args. (Note the trailing comma used to construct the singleton |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
404 |
tuple.) In our example, the resulting argument tuple is (aninstance, |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
405 |
10). |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
406 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
407 |
<P>The intrinsic function apply() takes a function and an argument |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
408 |
tuple and calls the function for it. In our example, we are calling |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
409 |
apply(method1, (aninstance, 10)) which is equivalent to calling |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
410 |
method(aninstance, 10). |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
411 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
412 |
<P>From here on, things should come together quite easily. The output |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
413 |
of the example code is something like this: |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
414 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
415 |
<PRE> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
416 |
calling <function method1 at ae8d8> for <Instance instance at 95ab0> with (10,) |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
417 |
calling <function method2 at ae900> for <Instance instance at 95ab0> with () |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
418 |
the answer is 10 |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
419 |
</PRE> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
420 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
421 |
<P>That was about the shortest meaningful example that I could come up |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
422 |
with. A real tracing metaclass (for example, <A |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
423 |
HREF="#Trace">Trace.py</A> discussed below) needs to be more |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
424 |
complicated in two dimensions. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
425 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
426 |
<P>First, it needs to support more advanced Python features such as |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
427 |
class variables, inheritance, __init__ methods, and keyword arguments. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
428 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
429 |
<P>Second, it needs to provide a more flexible way to handle the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
430 |
actual tracing information; perhaps it should be possible to write |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
431 |
your own tracing function that gets called, perhaps it should be |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
432 |
possible to enable and disable tracing on a per-class or per-instance |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
433 |
basis, and perhaps a filter so that only interesting calls are traced; |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
434 |
it should also be able to trace the return value of the call (or the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
435 |
exception it raised if an error occurs). Even the Trace.py example |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
436 |
doesn't support all these features yet. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
437 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
438 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
439 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
440 |
<HR> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
441 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
442 |
<H1>Real-life Examples</H1> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
443 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
444 |
<P>Have a look at some very preliminary examples that I coded up to |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
445 |
teach myself how to write metaclasses: |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
446 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
447 |
<DL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
448 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
449 |
<DT><A HREF="Enum.py">Enum.py</A> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
450 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
451 |
<DD>This (ab)uses the class syntax as an elegant way to define |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
452 |
enumerated types. The resulting classes are never instantiated -- |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
453 |
rather, their class attributes are the enumerated values. For |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
454 |
example: |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
455 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
456 |
<PRE> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
457 |
class Color(Enum): |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
458 |
red = 1 |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
459 |
green = 2 |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
460 |
blue = 3 |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
461 |
print Color.red |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
462 |
</PRE> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
463 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
464 |
will print the string ``Color.red'', while ``Color.red==1'' is true, |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
465 |
and ``Color.red + 1'' raise a TypeError exception. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
466 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
467 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
468 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
469 |
<DT><A NAME=Trace></A><A HREF="Trace.py">Trace.py</A> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
470 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
471 |
<DD>The resulting classes work much like standard |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
472 |
classes, but by setting a special class or instance attribute |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
473 |
__trace_output__ to point to a file, all calls to the class's methods |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
474 |
are traced. It was a bit of a struggle to get this right. This |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
475 |
should probably redone using the generic metaclass below. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
476 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
477 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
478 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
479 |
<DT><A HREF="Meta.py">Meta.py</A> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
480 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
481 |
<DD>A generic metaclass. This is an attempt at finding out how much |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
482 |
standard class behavior can be mimicked by a metaclass. The |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
483 |
preliminary answer appears to be that everything's fine as long as the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
484 |
class (or its clients) don't look at the instance's __class__ |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
485 |
attribute, nor at the class's __dict__ attribute. The use of |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
486 |
__getattr__ internally makes the classic implementation of __getattr__ |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
487 |
hooks tough; we provide a similar hook _getattr_ instead. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
488 |
(__setattr__ and __delattr__ are not affected.) |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
489 |
(XXX Hm. Could detect presence of __getattr__ and rename it.) |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
490 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
491 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
492 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
493 |
<DT><A HREF="Eiffel.py">Eiffel.py</A> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
494 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
495 |
<DD>Uses the above generic metaclass to implement Eiffel style |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
496 |
pre-conditions and post-conditions. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
497 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
498 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
499 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
500 |
<DT><A HREF="Synch.py">Synch.py</A> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
501 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
502 |
<DD>Uses the above generic metaclass to implement synchronized |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
503 |
methods. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
504 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
505 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
506 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
507 |
<DT><A HREF="Simple.py">Simple.py</A> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
508 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
509 |
<DD>The example module used above. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
510 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
511 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
512 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
513 |
</DL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
514 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
515 |
<P>A pattern seems to be emerging: almost all these uses of |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
516 |
metaclasses (except for Enum, which is probably more cute than useful) |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
517 |
mostly work by placing wrappers around method calls. An obvious |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
518 |
problem with that is that it's not easy to combine the features of |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
519 |
different metaclasses, while this would actually be quite useful: for |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
520 |
example, I wouldn't mind getting a trace from the test run of the |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
521 |
Synch module, and it would be interesting to add preconditions to it |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
522 |
as well. This needs more research. Perhaps a metaclass could be |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
523 |
provided that allows stackable wrappers... |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
524 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
525 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
526 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
527 |
<HR> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
528 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
529 |
<H2>Things You Could Do With Metaclasses</H2> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
530 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
531 |
<P>There are lots of things you could do with metaclasses. Most of |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
532 |
these can also be done with creative use of __getattr__, but |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
533 |
metaclasses make it easier to modify the attribute lookup behavior of |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
534 |
classes. Here's a partial list. |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
535 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
536 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
537 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
538 |
<UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
539 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
540 |
<LI>Enforce different inheritance semantics, e.g. automatically call |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
541 |
base class methods when a derived class overrides<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
542 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
543 |
<LI>Implement class methods (e.g. if the first argument is not named |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
544 |
'self')<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
545 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
546 |
<LI>Implement that each instance is initialized with <b>copies</b> of |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
547 |
all class variables<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
548 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
549 |
<LI>Implement a different way to store instance variables (e.g. in a |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
550 |
list kept outside the instance but indexed by the instance's id())<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
551 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
552 |
<LI>Automatically wrap or trap all or certain methods |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
553 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
554 |
<UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
555 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
556 |
<LI>for tracing |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
557 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
558 |
<LI>for precondition and postcondition checking |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
559 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
560 |
<LI>for synchronized methods |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
561 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
562 |
<LI>for automatic value caching |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
563 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
564 |
</UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
565 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
566 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
567 |
<LI>When an attribute is a parameterless function, call it on |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
568 |
reference (to mimic it being an instance variable); same on assignment<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
569 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
570 |
<LI>Instrumentation: see how many times various attributes are used<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
571 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
572 |
<LI>Different semantics for __setattr__ and __getattr__ (e.g. disable |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
573 |
them when they are being used recursively)<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
574 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
575 |
<LI>Abuse class syntax for other things<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
576 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
577 |
<LI>Experiment with automatic type checking<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
578 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
579 |
<LI>Delegation (or acquisition)<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
580 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
581 |
<LI>Dynamic inheritance patterns<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
582 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
583 |
<LI>Automatic caching of methods<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
584 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
585 |
</UL> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
586 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
587 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
588 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
589 |
<HR> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
590 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
591 |
<H4>Credits</H4> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
592 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
593 |
<P>Many thanks to David Ascher and Donald Beaudry for their comments |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
594 |
on earlier draft of this paper. Also thanks to Matt Conway and Tommy |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
595 |
Burnette for putting a seed for the idea of metaclasses in my |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
596 |
mind, nearly three years ago, even though at the time my response was |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
597 |
``you can do that with __getattr__ hooks...'' :-) |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
598 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
599 |
<P> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
600 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
601 |
<HR> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
602 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
603 |
</BODY> |
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
604 |
|
|
2fb8b9db1c86
Initial QEMU (symbian-qemu-0.9.1-12) import
martin.trojer@nokia.com
parents:
diff
changeset
|
605 |
</HTML> |