.. _tut-classes:

*******

Classes

*******

Python's class mechanism adds classes to the language with a minimum of new

syntax and semantics.  It is a mixture of the class mechanisms found in C++ and

Modula-3.  As is true for modules, classes in Python do not put an absolute

barrier between definition and user, but rather rely on the politeness of the

user not to "break into the definition."  The most important features of classes

are retained with full power, however: the class inheritance mechanism allows

multiple base classes, a derived class can override any methods of its base

class or classes, and a method can call the method of a base class with the same

name.  Objects can contain an arbitrary amount of private data.

In C++ terminology, all class members (including the data members) are *public*,

and all member functions are *virtual*.  There are no special constructors or

destructors.  As in Modula-3, there are no shorthands for referencing the

object's members from its methods: the method function is declared with an

explicit first argument representing the object, which is provided implicitly by

the call.  As in Smalltalk, classes themselves are objects, albeit in the wider

sense of the word: in Python, all data types are objects.  This provides

semantics for importing and renaming.  Unlike  C++ and Modula-3, built-in types

can be used as base classes for extension by the user.  Also, like in C++ but

unlike in Modula-3, most built-in operators with special syntax (arithmetic

operators, subscripting etc.) can be redefined for class instances.

.. _tut-terminology:

A Word About Terminology

========================

Lacking universally accepted terminology to talk about classes, I will make

occasional use of Smalltalk and C++ terms.  (I would use Modula-3 terms, since

its object-oriented semantics are closer to those of Python than C++, but I

expect that few readers have heard of it.)

Objects have individuality, and multiple names (in multiple scopes) can be bound

to the same object.  This is known as aliasing in other languages.  This is

usually not appreciated on a first glance at Python, and can be safely ignored

when dealing with immutable basic types (numbers, strings, tuples).  However,

aliasing has an (intended!) effect on the semantics of Python code involving

mutable objects such as lists, dictionaries, and most types representing

entities outside the program (files, windows, etc.).  This is usually used to

the benefit of the program, since aliases behave like pointers in some respects.

For example, passing an object is cheap since only a pointer is passed by the

implementation; and if a function modifies an object passed as an argument, the

caller will see the change --- this eliminates the need for two different

argument passing mechanisms as in Pascal.

.. _tut-scopes:

Python Scopes and Name Spaces

=============================

Before introducing classes, I first have to tell you something about Python's

scope rules.  Class definitions play some neat tricks with namespaces, and you

need to know how scopes and namespaces work to fully understand what's going on.

Incidentally, knowledge about this subject is useful for any advanced Python

programmer.

Let's begin with some definitions.

A *namespace* is a mapping from names to objects.  Most namespaces are currently

implemented as Python dictionaries, but that's normally not noticeable in any

way (except for performance), and it may change in the future.  Examples of

namespaces are: the set of built-in names (functions such as :func:`abs`, and

built-in exception names); the global names in a module; and the local names in

a function invocation.  In a sense the set of attributes of an object also form

a namespace.  The important thing to know about namespaces is that there is

absolutely no relation between names in different namespaces; for instance, two

different modules may both define a function "maximize" without confusion ---

users of the modules must prefix it with the module name.

By the way, I use the word *attribute* for any name following a dot --- for

example, in the expression ``z.real``, ``real`` is an attribute of the object

``z``.  Strictly speaking, references to names in modules are attribute

references: in the expression ``modname.funcname``, ``modname`` is a module

object and ``funcname`` is an attribute of it.  In this case there happens to be

a straightforward mapping between the module's attributes and the global names

defined in the module: they share the same namespace!  [#]_

Attributes may be read-only or writable.  In the latter case, assignment to

attributes is possible.  Module attributes are writable: you can write

``modname.the_answer = 42``.  Writable attributes may also be deleted with the

:keyword:`del` statement.  For example, ``del modname.the_answer`` will remove

the attribute :attr:`the_answer` from the object named by ``modname``.

Name spaces are created at different moments and have different lifetimes.  The

namespace containing the built-in names is created when the Python interpreter

starts up, and is never deleted.  The global namespace for a module is created

when the module definition is read in; normally, module namespaces also last

until the interpreter quits.  The statements executed by the top-level

invocation of the interpreter, either read from a script file or interactively,

are considered part of a module called :mod:`__main__`, so they have their own

global namespace.  (The built-in names actually also live in a module; this is

called :mod:`__builtin__`.)

The local namespace for a function is created when the function is called, and

deleted when the function returns or raises an exception that is not handled

within the function.  (Actually, forgetting would be a better way to describe

what actually happens.)  Of course, recursive invocations each have their own

local namespace.

A *scope* is a textual region of a Python program where a namespace is directly

accessible.  "Directly accessible" here means that an unqualified reference to a

name attempts to find the name in the namespace.

Although scopes are determined statically, they are used dynamically. At any

time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces

are directly accessible: the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains

the local names; the namespaces of any enclosing functions, which are searched

starting with the nearest enclosing scope; the middle scope, searched next,

contains the current module's global names; and the outermost scope (searched

last) is the namespace containing built-in names.

If a name is declared global, then all references and assignments go directly to

the middle scope containing the module's global names. Otherwise, all variables

found outside of the innermost scope are read-only (an attempt to write to such

a variable will simply create a *new* local variable in the innermost scope,

leaving the identically named outer variable unchanged).

Usually, the local scope references the local names of the (textually) current

function.  Outside functions, the local scope references the same namespace as

the global scope: the module's namespace. Class definitions place yet another

namespace in the local scope.

It is important to realize that scopes are determined textually: the global

scope of a function defined in a module is that module's namespace, no matter

from where or by what alias the function is called.  On the other hand, the

actual search for names is done dynamically, at run time --- however, the

language definition is evolving towards static name resolution, at "compile"

time, so don't rely on dynamic name resolution!  (In fact, local variables are

already determined statically.)

A special quirk of Python is that -- if no :keyword:`global`

statement is in effect -- assignments to names always go

into the innermost scope.  Assignments do not copy data --- they just bind names

to objects.  The same is true for deletions: the statement ``del x`` removes the

binding of ``x`` from the namespace referenced by the local scope.  In fact, all

operations that introduce new names use the local scope: in particular, import

statements and function definitions bind the module or function name in the

local scope.  (The :keyword:`global` statement can be used to indicate that

particular variables live in the global scope.)

.. _tut-firstclasses:

A First Look at Classes

=======================

Classes introduce a little bit of new syntax, three new object types, and some

new semantics.

.. _tut-classdefinition:

Class Definition Syntax

-----------------------

The simplest form of class definition looks like this::

   class ClassName:

       <statement-1>

       .

       .

       .

       <statement-N>

Class definitions, like function definitions (:keyword:`def` statements) must be

executed before they have any effect.  (You could conceivably place a class

definition in a branch of an :keyword:`if` statement, or inside a function.)

In practice, the statements inside a class definition will usually be function

definitions, but other statements are allowed, and sometimes useful --- we'll

come back to this later.  The function definitions inside a class normally have

a peculiar form of argument list, dictated by the calling conventions for

methods --- again, this is explained later.

When a class definition is entered, a new namespace is created, and used as the

local scope --- thus, all assignments to local variables go into this new

namespace.  In particular, function definitions bind the name of the new

function here.

When a class definition is left normally (via the end), a *class object* is

created.  This is basically a wrapper around the contents of the namespace

created by the class definition; we'll learn more about class objects in the

next section.  The original local scope (the one in effect just before the class

definition was entered) is reinstated, and the class object is bound here to the

class name given in the class definition header (:class:`ClassName` in the

example).

.. _tut-classobjects:

Class Objects

-------------

Class objects support two kinds of operations: attribute references and

instantiation.

*Attribute references* use the standard syntax used for all attribute references

in Python: ``obj.name``.  Valid attribute names are all the names that were in

the class's namespace when the class object was created.  So, if the class

definition looked like this::

   class MyClass:

       """A simple example class"""

       i = 12345

       def f(self):

           return 'hello world'

then ``MyClass.i`` and ``MyClass.f`` are valid attribute references, returning

an integer and a function object, respectively. Class attributes can also be

assigned to, so you can change the value of ``MyClass.i`` by assignment.

:attr:`__doc__` is also a valid attribute, returning the docstring belonging to

the class: ``"A simple example class"``.

Class *instantiation* uses function notation.  Just pretend that the class

object is a parameterless function that returns a new instance of the class.

For example (assuming the above class)::

   x = MyClass()

creates a new *instance* of the class and assigns this object to the local

variable ``x``.

The instantiation operation ("calling" a class object) creates an empty object.

Many classes like to create objects with instances customized to a specific

initial state. Therefore a class may define a special method named

:meth:`__init__`, like this::

   def __init__(self):

       self.data = []

When a class defines an :meth:`__init__` method, class instantiation

automatically invokes :meth:`__init__` for the newly-created class instance.  So

in this example, a new, initialized instance can be obtained by::

   x = MyClass()

Of course, the :meth:`__init__` method may have arguments for greater

flexibility.  In that case, arguments given to the class instantiation operator

are passed on to :meth:`__init__`.  For example, ::

   >>> class Complex:

   ...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):

   ...         self.r = realpart

   ...         self.i = imagpart

   ... 

   >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)

   >>> x.r, x.i

   (3.0, -4.5)

.. _tut-instanceobjects:

Instance Objects

----------------

Now what can we do with instance objects?  The only operations understood by

instance objects are attribute references.  There are two kinds of valid

attribute names, data attributes and methods.

*data attributes* correspond to "instance variables" in Smalltalk, and to "data

members" in C++.  Data attributes need not be declared; like local variables,

they spring into existence when they are first assigned to.  For example, if

``x`` is the instance of :class:`MyClass` created above, the following piece of

code will print the value ``16``, without leaving a trace::

   x.counter = 1

   while x.counter < 10:

       x.counter = x.counter * 2

   print x.counter

   del x.counter

The other kind of instance attribute reference is a *method*. A method is a

function that "belongs to" an object.  (In Python, the term method is not unique

to class instances: other object types can have methods as well.  For example,

list objects have methods called append, insert, remove, sort, and so on.

However, in the following discussion, we'll use the term method exclusively to

mean methods of class instance objects, unless explicitly stated otherwise.)

.. index:: object: method

Valid method names of an instance object depend on its class.  By definition,

all attributes of a class that are function  objects define corresponding

methods of its instances.  So in our example, ``x.f`` is a valid method

reference, since ``MyClass.f`` is a function, but ``x.i`` is not, since

``MyClass.i`` is not.  But ``x.f`` is not the same thing as ``MyClass.f`` --- it

is a *method object*, not a function object.

.. _tut-methodobjects:

Method Objects

--------------

Usually, a method is called right after it is bound::

   x.f()

In the :class:`MyClass` example, this will return the string ``'hello world'``.

However, it is not necessary to call a method right away: ``x.f`` is a method

object, and can be stored away and called at a later time.  For example::

   xf = x.f

   while True:

       print xf()

will continue to print ``hello world`` until the end of time.

What exactly happens when a method is called?  You may have noticed that

``x.f()`` was called without an argument above, even though the function

definition for :meth:`f` specified an argument.  What happened to the argument?

Surely Python raises an exception when a function that requires an argument is

called without any --- even if the argument isn't actually used...

Actually, you may have guessed the answer: the special thing about methods is

that the object is passed as the first argument of the function.  In our

example, the call ``x.f()`` is exactly equivalent to ``MyClass.f(x)``.  In

general, calling a method with a list of *n* arguments is equivalent to calling

the corresponding function with an argument list that is created by inserting

the method's object before the first argument.

If you still don't understand how methods work, a look at the implementation can

perhaps clarify matters.  When an instance attribute is referenced that isn't a

data attribute, its class is searched.  If the name denotes a valid class

attribute that is a function object, a method object is created by packing

(pointers to) the instance object and the function object just found together in

an abstract object: this is the method object.  When the method object is called

with an argument list, it is unpacked again, a new argument list is constructed

from the instance object and the original argument list, and the function object

is called with this new argument list.

.. _tut-remarks:

Random Remarks

==============

.. These should perhaps be placed more carefully...

Data attributes override method attributes with the same name; to avoid

accidental name conflicts, which may cause hard-to-find bugs in large programs,

it is wise to use some kind of convention that minimizes the chance of

conflicts.  Possible conventions include capitalizing method names, prefixing

data attribute names with a small unique string (perhaps just an underscore), or

using verbs for methods and nouns for data attributes.

Data attributes may be referenced by methods as well as by ordinary users

("clients") of an object.  In other words, classes are not usable to implement

pure abstract data types.  In fact, nothing in Python makes it possible to

enforce data hiding --- it is all based upon convention.  (On the other hand,

the Python implementation, written in C, can completely hide implementation

details and control access to an object if necessary; this can be used by

extensions to Python written in C.)

Clients should use data attributes with care --- clients may mess up invariants

maintained by the methods by stamping on their data attributes.  Note that

clients may add data attributes of their own to an instance object without

affecting the validity of the methods, as long as name conflicts are avoided ---

again, a naming convention can save a lot of headaches here.

There is no shorthand for referencing data attributes (or other methods!) from

within methods.  I find that this actually increases the readability of methods:

there is no chance of confusing local variables and instance variables when

glancing through a method.

Often, the first argument of a method is called ``self``.  This is nothing more

than a convention: the name ``self`` has absolutely no special meaning to

Python.  (Note, however, that by not following the convention your code may be

less readable to other Python programmers, and it is also conceivable that a

*class browser* program might be written that relies upon such a convention.)

Any function object that is a class attribute defines a method for instances of

that class.  It is not necessary that the function definition is textually

enclosed in the class definition: assigning a function object to a local

variable in the class is also ok.  For example::

   # Function defined outside the class

   def f1(self, x, y):

       return min(x, x+y)

   class C:

       f = f1

       def g(self):

           return 'hello world'

       h = g

Now ``f``, ``g`` and ``h`` are all attributes of class :class:`C` that refer to

function objects, and consequently they are all methods of instances of

:class:`C` --- ``h`` being exactly equivalent to ``g``.  Note that this practice

usually only serves to confuse the reader of a program.

Methods may call other methods by using method attributes of the ``self``

argument::

   class Bag:

       def __init__(self):

           self.data = []

       def add(self, x):

           self.data.append(x)

       def addtwice(self, x):

           self.add(x)

           self.add(x)

Methods may reference global names in the same way as ordinary functions.  The

global scope associated with a method is the module containing the class

definition.  (The class itself is never used as a global scope!)  While one

rarely encounters a good reason for using global data in a method, there are

many legitimate uses of the global scope: for one thing, functions and modules

imported into the global scope can be used by methods, as well as functions and

classes defined in it.  Usually, the class containing the method is itself

defined in this global scope, and in the next section we'll find some good

reasons why a method would want to reference its own class!

Each value is an object, and therefore has a *class* (also called its *type*).

It is stored as ``object.__class__``.

.. _tut-inheritance:

Inheritance

===========

Of course, a language feature would not be worthy of the name "class" without

supporting inheritance.  The syntax for a derived class definition looks like

this::

   class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):

       <statement-1>

       .

       .

       .

       <statement-N>

The name :class:`BaseClassName` must be defined in a scope containing the

derived class definition.  In place of a base class name, other arbitrary

expressions are also allowed.  This can be useful, for example, when the base

class is defined in another module::

   class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):

Execution of a derived class definition proceeds the same as for a base class.

When the class object is constructed, the base class is remembered.  This is

used for resolving attribute references: if a requested attribute is not found

in the class, the search proceeds to look in the base class.  This rule is

applied recursively if the base class itself is derived from some other class.

There's nothing special about instantiation of derived classes:

``DerivedClassName()`` creates a new instance of the class.  Method references

are resolved as follows: the corresponding class attribute is searched,

descending down the chain of base classes if necessary, and the method reference

is valid if this yields a function object.

Derived classes may override methods of their base classes.  Because methods

have no special privileges when calling other methods of the same object, a

method of a base class that calls another method defined in the same base class

may end up calling a method of a derived class that overrides it.  (For C++

programmers: all methods in Python are effectively ``virtual``.)

An overriding method in a derived class may in fact want to extend rather than

simply replace the base class method of the same name. There is a simple way to

call the base class method directly: just call ``BaseClassName.methodname(self,

arguments)``.  This is occasionally useful to clients as well.  (Note that this

only works if the base class is defined or imported directly in the global

scope.)

Python has two builtin functions that work with inheritance:

* Use :func:`isinstance` to check an object's type: ``isinstance(obj, int)``

  will be ``True`` only if ``obj.__class__`` is :class:`int` or some class

  derived from :class:`int`.

* Use :func:`issubclass` to check class inheritance: ``issubclass(bool, int)``

  is ``True`` since :class:`bool` is a subclass of :class:`int`.  However,

  ``issubclass(unicode, str)`` is ``False`` since :class:`unicode` is not a

  subclass of :class:`str` (they only share a common ancestor,

  :class:`basestring`).

.. _tut-multiple:

Multiple Inheritance

--------------------

Python supports a limited form of multiple inheritance as well.  A class

definition with multiple base classes looks like this::

   class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):

       <statement-1>

       .

       .

       .

       <statement-N>

For old-style classes, the only rule is depth-first, left-to-right.  Thus, if an

attribute is not found in :class:`DerivedClassName`, it is searched in

:class:`Base1`, then (recursively) in the base classes of :class:`Base1`, and

only if it is not found there, it is searched in :class:`Base2`, and so on.

(To some people breadth first --- searching :class:`Base2` and :class:`Base3`

before the base classes of :class:`Base1` --- looks more natural.  However, this

would require you to know whether a particular attribute of :class:`Base1` is

actually defined in :class:`Base1` or in one of its base classes before you can

figure out the consequences of a name conflict with an attribute of

:class:`Base2`.  The depth-first rule makes no differences between direct and

inherited attributes of :class:`Base1`.)

For :term:`new-style class`\es, the method resolution order changes dynamically

to support cooperative calls to :func:`super`.  This approach is known in some

other multiple-inheritance languages as call-next-method and is more powerful

than the super call found in single-inheritance languages.

With new-style classes, dynamic ordering is necessary because all  cases of

multiple inheritance exhibit one or more diamond relationships (where one at

least one of the parent classes can be accessed through multiple paths from the

bottommost class).  For example, all new-style classes inherit from

:class:`object`, so any case of multiple inheritance provides more than one path

to reach :class:`object`.  To keep the base classes from being accessed more

than once, the dynamic algorithm linearizes the search order in a way that

preserves the left-to-right ordering specified in each class, that calls each

parent only once, and that is monotonic (meaning that a class can be subclassed

without affecting the precedence order of its parents).  Taken together, these