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/*!

    \page signalsandslots.html

    \title Signals and Slots

    \brief An overview of Qt's signals and slots inter-object

    communication mechanism.

    Signals and slots are used for communication between objects. The

    signals and slots mechanism is a central feature of Qt and

    probably the part that differs most from the features provided by

    other frameworks.

    \tableofcontents

    \section1 Introduction

    In GUI programming, when we change one widget, we often want

    another widget to be notified. More generally, we want objects of

    any kind to be able to communicate with one another. For example,

    if a user clicks a \gui{Close} button, we probably want the

    window's \l{QWidget::close()}{close()} function to be called.

    Older toolkits achieve this kind of communication using

    callbacks. A callback is a pointer to a function, so if you want

    a processing function to notify you about some event you pass a

    pointer to another function (the callback) to the processing

    function. The processing function then calls the callback when

    appropriate. Callbacks have two fundamental flaws: Firstly, they

    are not type-safe. We can never be certain that the processing

    function will call the callback with the correct arguments.

    Secondly, the callback is strongly coupled to the processing

    function since the processing function must know which callback

    to call.

    \section1 Signals and Slots

    In Qt, we have an alternative to the callback technique: We use

    signals and slots. A signal is emitted when a particular event

    occurs. Qt's widgets have many predefined signals, but we can

    always subclass widgets to add our own signals to them. A slot

    is a function that is called in response to a particular signal.

    Qt's widgets have many pre-defined slots, but it is common

    practice to subclass widgets and add your own slots so that you

    can handle the signals that you are interested in.

    \img abstract-connections.png

    \omit

    \caption An abstract view of some signals and slots connections

    \endomit

    The signals and slots mechanism is type safe: The signature of a

    signal must match the signature of the receiving slot. (In fact a

    slot may have a shorter signature than the signal it receives

    because it can ignore extra arguments.) Since the signatures are

    compatible, the compiler can help us detect type mismatches.

    Signals and slots are loosely coupled: A class which emits a

    signal neither knows nor cares which slots receive the signal.

    Qt's signals and slots mechanism ensures that if you connect a

    signal to a slot, the slot will be called with the signal's

    parameters at the right time. Signals and slots can take any

    number of arguments of any type. They are completely type safe.

    All classes that inherit from QObject or one of its subclasses

    (e.g., QWidget) can contain signals and slots. Signals are emitted by

    objects when they change their state in a way that may be interesting

    to other objects. This is all the object does to communicate. It

    does not know or care whether anything is receiving the signals it

    emits. This is true information encapsulation, and ensures that the

    object can be used as a software component.

    Slots can be used for receiving signals, but they are also normal

    member functions. Just as an object does not know if anything receives

    its signals, a slot does not know if it has any signals connected to

    it. This ensures that truly independent components can be created with

    Qt.

    You can connect as many signals as you want to a single slot, and a

    signal can be connected to as many slots as you need. It is even

    possible to connect a signal directly to another signal. (This will

    emit the second signal immediately whenever the first is emitted.)

    Together, signals and slots make up a powerful component programming

    mechanism.

    \section1 A Small Example

    A minimal C++ class declaration might read:

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 0

    A small QObject-based class might read:

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 1

    \codeline

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 2

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.h 3

    The QObject-based version has the same internal state, and provides

    public methods to access the state, but in addition it has support

    for component programming using signals and slots. This class can

    tell the outside world that its state has changed by emitting a

    signal, \c{valueChanged()}, and it has a slot which other objects

    can send signals to.

    All classes that contain signals or slots must mention

    Q_OBJECT at the top of their declaration. They must also derive

    (directly or indirectly) from QObject.

    Slots are implemented by the application programmer.

    Here is a possible implementation of the \c{Counter::setValue()}

    slot:

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 0

    The \c{emit} line emits the signal \c valueChanged() from the

    object, with the new value as argument.

    In the following code snippet, we create two \c Counter objects

    and connect the first object's \c valueChanged() signal to the

    second object's \c setValue() slot using QObject::connect():

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 1

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 2

    \codeline

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 3

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 4

    Calling \c{a.setValue(12)} makes \c{a} emit a

    \c{valueChanged(12)} signal, which \c{b} will receive in its

    \c{setValue()} slot, i.e. \c{b.setValue(12)} is called. Then

    \c{b} emits the same \c{valueChanged()} signal, but since no slot

    has been connected to \c{b}'s \c{valueChanged()} signal, the

    signal is ignored.

    Note that the \c{setValue()} function sets the value and emits

    the signal only if \c{value != m_value}. This prevents infinite

    looping in the case of cyclic connections (e.g., if

    \c{b.valueChanged()} were connected to \c{a.setValue()}).

    By default, for every connection you make, a signal is emitted;

    two signals are emitted for duplicate connections. You can break

    all of these connections with a single disconnect() call.

    If you pass the Qt::UniqueConnection \a type, the connection will only

    be made if it is not a duplicate. If there is already a duplicate

    (exact same signal to the exact same slot on the same objects),

    the connection will fail and connect will return false

    This example illustrates that objects can work together without needing to

    know any information about each other. To enable this, the objects only

    need to be connected together, and this can be achieved with some simple

    QObject::connect() function calls, or with \c{uic}'s

    \l{Using a Designer UI File in Your Application#Automatic Connections}

    {automatic connections} feature.

    \section1 Building the Example

    The C++ preprocessor changes or removes the \c{signals},

    \c{slots}, and \c{emit} keywords so that the compiler is

    presented with standard C++.

    By running the \l moc on class definitions that contain signals

    or slots, a C++ source file is produced which should be compiled

    and linked with the other object files for the application. If

    you use \l qmake, the makefile rules to automatically invoke \c

    moc will be added to your project's makefile.

    \section1 Signals

    Signals are emitted by an object when its internal state has changed

    in some way that might be interesting to the object's client or owner.

    Only the class that defines a signal and its subclasses can emit the

    signal.

    When a signal is emitted, the slots connected to it are usually

    executed immediately, just like a normal function call. When this

    happens, the signals and slots mechanism is totally independent of

    any GUI event loop. Execution of the code following the \c emit

    statement will occur once all slots have returned. The situation is

    slightly different when using \l{Qt::ConnectionType}{queued

    connections}; in such a case, the code following the \c emit keyword

    will continue immediately, and the slots will be executed later.

    If several slots are connected to one signal, the slots will be

    executed one after the other, in the order they have been connected,

    when the signal is emitted.

    Signals are automatically generated by the \l moc and must not be

    implemented in the \c .cpp file. They can never have return types

    (i.e. use \c void).

    A note about arguments: Our experience shows that signals and slots

    are more reusable if they do not use special types. If

    QScrollBar::valueChanged() were to use a special type such as the

    hypothetical QScrollBar::Range, it could only be connected to

    slots designed specifically for QScrollBar. Connecting different

    input widgets together would be impossible.

    \section1 Slots

    A slot is called when a signal connected to it is emitted. Slots are

    normal C++ functions and can be called normally; their only special

    feature is that signals can be connected to them.

    Since slots are normal member functions, they follow the normal C++

    rules when called directly. However, as slots, they can be invoked

    by any component, regardless of its access level, via a signal-slot

    connection. This means that a signal emitted from an instance of an

    arbitrary class can cause a private slot to be invoked in an instance

    of an unrelated class.

    You can also define slots to be virtual, which we have found quite

    useful in practice.

    Compared to callbacks, signals and slots are slightly slower

    because of the increased flexibility they provide, although the

    difference for real applications is insignificant. In general,

    emitting a signal that is connected to some slots, is

    approximately ten times slower than calling the receivers

    directly, with non-virtual function calls. This is the overhead

    required to locate the connection object, to safely iterate over

    all connections (i.e. checking that subsequent receivers have not

    been destroyed during the emission), and to marshall any

    parameters in a generic fashion. While ten non-virtual function

    calls may sound like a lot, it's much less overhead than any \c

    new or \c delete operation, for example. As soon as you perform a

    string, vector or list operation that behind the scene requires

    \c new or \c delete, the signals and slots overhead is only

    responsible for a very small proportion of the complete function

    call costs.

    The same is true whenever you do a system call in a slot; or

    indirectly call more than ten functions. On an i586-500, you can

    emit around 2,000,000 signals per second connected to one

    receiver, or around 1,200,000 per second connected to two

    receivers. The simplicity and flexibility of the signals and

    slots mechanism is well worth the overhead, which your users

    won't even notice.

    Note that other libraries that define variables called \c signals

    or \c slots may cause compiler warnings and errors when compiled

    alongside a Qt-based application. To solve this problem, \c

    #undef the offending preprocessor symbol.

    \section1 Meta-Object Information

    The meta-object compiler (\l moc) parses the class declaration in

    a C++ file and generates C++ code that initializes the

    meta-object. The meta-object contains the names of all the signal

    and slot members, as well as pointers to these functions.

    The meta-object contains additional information such as the

    object's \link QObject::className() class name\endlink. You can

    also check if an object \link QObject::inherits()

    inherits\endlink a specific class, for example:

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 5

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 6

    The meta-object information is also used by qobject_cast<T>(), which

    is similar to QObject::inherits() but is less error-prone:

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/signalsandslots.cpp 7

    See \l{Meta-Object System} for more information.

    \section1 A Real Example

    Here is a simple commented example of a widget.

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 0

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 1

    \codeline

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 2

    \codeline

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 3

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 4

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 5

    \c LcdNumber inherits QObject, which has most of the signal-slot

    knowledge, via QFrame and QWidget. It is somewhat similar to the

    built-in QLCDNumber widget.

    The Q_OBJECT macro is expanded by the preprocessor to declare

    several member functions that are implemented by the \c{moc}; if

    you get compiler errors along the lines of "undefined reference

    to vtable for \c{LcdNumber}", you have probably forgotten to

    \l{moc}{run the moc} or to include the moc output in the link

    command.

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 6

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 7

    It's not obviously relevant to the moc, but if you inherit

    QWidget you almost certainly want to have the \c parent argument

    in your constructor and pass it to the base class's constructor.

    Some destructors and member functions are omitted here; the \c

    moc ignores member functions.

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 8

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 9

    \c LcdNumber emits a signal when it is asked to show an impossible

    value.

    If you don't care about overflow, or you know that overflow

    cannot occur, you can ignore the \c overflow() signal, i.e. don't

    connect it to any slot.

    If on the other hand you want to call two different error

    functions when the number overflows, simply connect the signal to

    two different slots. Qt will call both (in arbitrary order).

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 10

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 11

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 12

    \codeline

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalsandslots/lcdnumber.h 13

    A slot is a receiving function used to get information about

    state changes in other widgets. \c LcdNumber uses it, as the code

    above indicates, to set the displayed number. Since \c{display()}

    is part of the class's interface with the rest of the program,

    the slot is public.

    Several of the example programs connect the

    \l{QScrollBar::valueChanged()}{valueChanged()} signal of a

    QScrollBar to the \c display() slot, so the LCD number

    continuously shows the value of the scroll bar.

    Note that \c display() is overloaded; Qt will select the

    appropriate version when you connect a signal to the slot. With

    callbacks, you'd have to find five different names and keep track

    of the types yourself.

    Some irrelevant member functions have been omitted from this

    example.

    \section1 Signals And Slots With Default Arguments

    The signatures of signals and slots may contain arguments, and the

    arguments can have default values. Consider QObject::destroyed():

    \code

    void destroyed(QObject* = 0); 

    \endcode

    When a QObject is deleted, it emits this QObject::destroyed()

    signal. We want to catch this signal, wherever we might have a

    dangling reference to the deleted QObject, so we can clean it up.

    A suitable slot signature might be:

    \code

    void objectDestroyed(QObject* obj = 0);

    \endcode

    To connect the signal to the slot, we use QObject::connect() and

    the \c{SIGNAL()} and \c{SLOT()} macros. The rule about whether to

    include arguments or not in the \c{SIGNAL()} and \c{SLOT()}

    macros, if the arguments have default values, is that the

    signature passed to the \c{SIGNAL()} macro must \e not have fewer

    arguments than the signature passed to the \c{SLOT()} macro.

    All of these would work:

    \code

    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed(QObject*)), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed(Qbject*)));

    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed(QObject*)), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed()));

    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed()), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed()));

    \endcode

    But this one won't work:

    \code

    connect(sender, SIGNAL(destroyed()), this, SLOT(objectDestroyed(QObject*)));

    \endcode

    ...because the slot will be expecting a QObject that the signal

    will not send. This connection will report a runtime error.

    \section1 Advanced Signals and Slots Usage

    For cases where you may require information on the sender of the

    signal, Qt provides the QObject::sender() function, which returns

    a pointer to the object that sent the signal.

    The QSignalMapper class is provided for situations where many

    signals are connected to the same slot and the slot needs to

    handle each signal differently.

    Suppose you have three push buttons that determine which file you

    will open: "Tax File", "Accounts File", or "Report File". 

    In order to open the correct file, you use QSignalMapper::setMapping() to

    map all the clicked() signals to a QSignalMapper object. Then you connect

    the file's QPushButton::clicked() signal to the QSignalMapper::map() slot.

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalmapper/filereader.cpp 0

    Then, you connect the \l{QSignalMapper::}{mapped()} signal to

    \c{readFile()} where a different file will be opened, depending on

    which push button is pressed.

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/signalmapper/filereader.cpp 1

    \sa {Meta-Object System}, {Qt's Property System}

    \target 3rd Party Signals and Slots

    \section2 Using Qt with 3rd Party Signals and Slots

    It is possible to use Qt with a 3rd party signal/slot mechanism.

    You can even use both mechanisms in the same project. Just add the

    following line to your qmake project (.pro) file.

    \snippet doc/src/snippets/code/doc_src_containers.qdoc 22

    It tells Qt not to define the moc keywords \c{signals}, \c{slots},

    and \c{emit}, because these names will be used by a 3rd party

    library, e.g. Boost. Then to continue using Qt signals and slots

    with the \c{no_keywords} flag, simply replace all uses of the Qt

    moc keywords in your sources with the corresponding Qt macros

    Q_SIGNALS (or Q_SIGNAL), Q_SLOTS (or Q_SLOT), and Q_EMIT.

*/